Lesson 30: Syria, Lebanon and Iraq - From Mandate to Independence

01French policy in Syria and Lebanon

• The French cut off the Beqaa plain, Tripoli, Sidon and Beirut and attached them to Mount Lebanon, so that "Greater Lebanon" appeared.
• They tore Syria into several small states: Aleppo, the Druze state, the Alawite state and Damascus.
• They controlled the economies of the countries by tying the Syrian and Lebanese currencies to the French franc.
• French officials filled most of the key posts, and others besides them.

02The Syrian revolt (1925)

Its causes and course

• Colonial policy led to revolt in the Levant in 1925, which broke out from Jabal al-Duruz (the Druze mountain) under Sultan Pasha al-Atrash.
• France regained control of the country only by using its armed forces brutally against the strongholds of the rebels.

Its result

• The revolt convinced the French authority to modify its policy, and the two sides agreed on a constituent assembly which proclaimed the Syrian Republic.
• But the Syrian national movement stood on opposite sides with the French, as was the case in Egypt: the Syrians insisted on an independent, constitutional, parliamentary Syrian state, while the French insisted on keeping the upper hand in directing the country.

03The draft treaty of 1936 and the return of tyranny

• Because the atmosphere of the world in the mid-1930s was filled with the coming of a new world war, France turned to placing Franco-Syrian relations on an agreed basis, and the two states reached the draft treaty of 1936, which put Syria's resources at the service of France's political, military, economic and social aims.
• Lebanon gained from the Syrian struggle France's intention to sign a similar treaty with it.
• But the French National Assembly (parliament) rejected both draft treaties, so France went on ruling Syria and Lebanon under the charter of the mandate; the constitution was suspended and the French ruled the countries tyrannically.
• The French worked to separate the sanjak of Alexandretta from Syria, until Turkey took possession of it in 1939.

04Lebanon under the mandate

• Lebanon enjoyed the fruits of the Syrian struggle: the Lebanese Republic was proclaimed, a constitution was issued and a parliament was formed.
• But the confessional manner of government and administration remained dominant between the Maronite Christians, the Sunnis and the Shiites, and this deprived Lebanon of the concept of a homogeneous state.

05The Second World War in Syria and Lebanon

• France put both Syria and Lebanon at the service of the French war machine — but she fell under the feet of the German armies: Marshal Pétain made an armistice with Germany and his government in central and southern France, showing a leaning towards Germany, became known as the Vichy government.
• General de Gaulle refused the defeat and insisted on continuing the resistance; his government was known as Free France, directed from England.
• In Syria and Lebanon the French forces declared their allegiance to the Vichy government, out of spite against England, which the French accused of having abandoned France in its ordeal.
• Rashid Ali al-Kilani's revolt broke out in Iraq against the English presence, and Nazi Germany declared its readiness to answer the call of the Iraqi revolt by landing German aircraft at the airfields of Syria and Lebanon.
• Therefore the English hurried to seize Syria and Lebanon, meeting weak resistance because of the collapsing morale among the French forces there, who found themselves facing not only the fight against the English but against their own French brothers.

06The independence of Syria and Lebanon

Syria

• The French entered Syria and Lebanon believing they would exercise their former authorities — something the masses refused.
• The English government, far-sighted, declared that it respected the wishes of peoples for independence, and so helped to undermine French colonialism.
• The masses moved demanding independence, and the French were obliged to retreat before the national pressure: the parliament met in 1943 and chose Shukri al-Quwatli as president of the republic.
• In 1945 the French government revealed its colonial intentions by working to seize the authorities in Syria; the people resisted, and its aircraft and tanks fell on them with destructive bombardment.
• The Arab countries rose in support of Syria's independence, and England and the United States stood beside the Syrian national movement, until the French were obliged to evacuate the country in April 1946.

Lebanon

• Much the same happened in Lebanon: the parliament met and Beshara el-Khuri won the presidency in 1943, and Riad el-Solh formed a national ministry with himself at its head.
• The French harboured the idea of overthrowing the national government and arrested Beshara el-Khuri and Riad el-Solh, imprisoning them at Rachaya. The country was thrown into disorder; the Lebanese declared their hold on their government and their full independence; the Arab countries stood in solidarity, Egypt at their head, and the great majority of states did likewise, led by France's own allies England and the United States.
• The French were obliged to release the prisoners, the affairs of government returned to the nationalists, and the final French evacuation of Lebanon took place at the end of December 1946.

07Iraq: the revolution of 1920 (Thawrat al-Ishrin)

• During its operations to expel the Turks from Iraq the English issued many statements affirming that they had come only to liberate it from the Turks.
• After the war it became clear to the Iraqis that they had come only to colonise them, and the fate of Syria was clear proof of what the English were hiding for Iraq.
• The English declared their mandate over Iraq in accordance with the decisions of the San Remo conference of 1920.
• The Egyptian revolution of 1919 had a great effect in encouraging the Arab peoples to revolt against the coloniser, so the revolution of 1920 broke out in Iraq, and the English government was obliged to retreat.
• A temporary national government was formed under Abdul Rahman el-Gillani in October 1920, and the way was prepared to entrust the throne of Iraq to Faisal bin Hussein; the allegiance (bi'a) was pledged to him at the instigation of the British authorities.
• The upper hand remained with Britain, while the Iraqi national movement kept holding to the country's right to independence.

08The treaties of Iraq

The treaty of June 1930

• The first step taken by the national movement was to rid the country of the mandate: it concluded the treaty of 1922 — but that left the upper hand with Britain. Treaties followed, the most important being the treaty of June 1930, which provided for:
• The independence of Iraq from the moment of its admission as a member of the League of Nations.
• The presence of British forces at certain specified locations.
• Protection of the British lines of communication, especially the air routes.

Why the national movement moved slowly

• The movement worked to free Iraq of its ties slowly, because of sectarian conflicts, the squabbling of the parties over power, and the interference of the tribes in raising one ministry and toppling another.
• The disturbances led to a military coup led by Bakr Sidqi (1936); but he was killed and matters returned to what they had been.

09Iraq in and after the Second World War

• England tried to strengthen its forces in Iraq; the Iraqi government objected and the Iraqi officers were keen to fight the English, believing that Germany would come to their rescue.
• A large English force moved from Basra against the rebels and a force moved from Jordan; and the Iraqi forces were defeated (May 1941).
• After the war the national movement returned to its strength, demanding independence. The prime minister Salih Jabr entered negotiations that produced the treaty of Portsmouth, which kept for the English the right to retain air bases; the Iraqi people rose against it until it failed and Salih Jabr's government fell.
• The regent of the throne and Nuri al-Said believed that coming to terms with England was more profitable than revolting against it, so Iraq joined the Baghdad Pact in 1955 with England, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey.
• At the same time Egypt, under Nasser's leadership, was raising the banner of liberation from colonialism and adopting the policy of positive neutralism, which helped the opposition movement to the Iraqi regime and prepared the way for the revolution of July 1958, which ended the royal regime and set up a republican system.

10Exam traps and key takeaways

• French division of Syria: Aleppo, the Druze state, the Alawite state and Damascus; Greater Lebanon came from adding the Beqaa, Tripoli, Sidon and Beirut to Mount Lebanon — attaching Alexandretta to Lebanon is a wrong option.
• Economic control = tying the Syrian and Lebanese currencies to the French franc.
• The 1925 revolt began from Jabal al-Duruz under Sultan Pasha al-Atrash; its result was a constituent assembly proclaiming the Syrian Republic — not immediate independence.
• The deadlock was structural, as in Egypt: Syrians wanted independent constitutional parliamentary rule; the French wanted the upper hand.
• Why the 1936 treaties never came into force: the French National Assembly rejected them, so France ruled by the mandate charter with the constitution suspended. Alexandretta was lost to Turkey in 1939.
• Lebanon's paradox: republic, constitution and parliament — yet confessional rule (Maronites, Sunnis, Shiites) meant no homogeneous state.
• WWII chain: France falls → Pétain/Vichy · de Gaulle/Free France from England → French forces in Syria and Lebanon side with Vichy → Rashid Ali's revolt in Iraq → German aircraft wanted at Syrian/Lebanese airfields → Britain seizes Syria and Lebanon (1941). Vichy's motive was spite against England for abandoning France.
• Independence dates: Syrian parliament meets and elects Shukri al-Quwatli 1943; French bombing 1945; Syrian evacuation April 1946. Lebanon: Beshara el-Khuri 1943 + Riad el-Solh's national ministry; arrested at Rachaya; final evacuation end of December 1946. Britain and the USA backed the nationalists — France's own allies.
• Iraq: mandate declared per San Remo 1920; 1919 Egypt encouraged 1920's Thawrat al-Ishrin; temporary government of Abdul Rahman el-Gillani October 1920; Faisal bin Hussein enthroned by allegiance at Britain's instigation.
• Treaties: 1922 kept the upper hand for Britain; June 1930 granted independence from entry to the League of Nations plus British forces at fixed sites and protection of British communications, above all air routes.
• Three reasons the movement was slow: sectarian conflict · party squabbling · tribal interference in ministries. The Bakr Sidqi coup (1936) failed when he was killed.
• 1941: British column from Basra and another from Jordan; Iraqi defeat May 1941. Post-war: Portsmouth treaty retained air bases → popular revolt → Salih Jabr's government fell.
• Baghdad Pact 1955 = Iraq with England, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey — Egypt under Nasser opposed it, which fed the opposition at home and prepared the revolution of July 1958 that ended the monarchy.